Today’s post will be divided into three significant parts. The explanation of semiotics itself, definitions of three terms: icon, sign and symbol, with correlating to them images. Lastly, I will explain why according to Berger and Branston & Stafford the Semiotics is a useful approach while doing research.
Semiotics
In his book The Objects of Affection Arthur Berger explains that the Semiotics can be traced back to Hippocrates and philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, Saint Augustine and John Locke. (Berger, 2010) Philosophers dealt with the signs in their writings when the medicine dealt with signs in relation to medical symptoms. The modern semiotics began with two authors and their works: Ferdinande de Saussure(1857–1913) and Charles S. Peirce(1839–1914).
As described by Branston & Stafford, „Semiotics is defined as the study of signs, or of the social production of meanings and pleasures by sign systems, or the study of how things come to have significance.” (Branston & Stafford, 2003, p. 12) So, to derive from that, Semiotics is basically a language of signs. There are two different „schools” of Semiotics. One based on the works of de Saussure, the second one derived from the views of Peirce.
De Saussure and Semiotics
The semiotic approach introduced by Ferdinande de Saussure is usually referred to as structuralism or semiology. De Saussure was a Swiss linguist, and his main interest was how people produce and understand the language. Through his work he discovered that what makes us understand the language is the systems behind it, which give a certain meaning to it. For de Saussure, the two main concepts within this approach were signifier and signified. As written by Berger:
„For Saussure signs have two parts: a sound-image or signifier and a concept or signified; it is crucially important to understand that the relation between the signifier and signified is not natural but arbitrary and based on convention. This means that the meaning of signs can change over time.” (Berger, 2010, p. 5)
According to de Saussure’s theory of sign, the signifier is the sound-image so the word that is spoken. Signified then is the meaning or the concept behind it, what is indicated by this particular part of speech. The signs can be studied in two ways: synchronically, so at a fixed, particular point in time, or diachronically, so as they develop and change over time. (Berger, 2010) The signs themselves are always related to another ones. It might be syntagmatic – as a combination (in presentia) or paradigmatic – as an opposition or selection (in asbentia). For example, as mentioned in the lecture by Jack Post on the topic of Semiotic – the Apple logo is usually existing with the logo of IBM. It might be syntagmatic – as a combination of those two in a computer magazine, or paradigmatic, as the Apple logo itself is an opposition to the logo of IBM, which does not have to be present at the same time. Deriving from that, the meaning given to particular sign is made by the differences in signs. All of the signs constitute to the code or system, and their meaning is constructed by their differences in relation to each other. But, there is no meaning production without the culture and vice versa. As pointed out by Branston and Stafford: „Saussure, then, was mostly interested in language, arguing it was a cultural creation rather than ‘natural’.” (Branston & Stafford, 2003, p. 13) The ideas of de Saussure were quite different from Charles Peirce’s semiotics.
Peirce and the three different categories of signs
The key concepts of sign, icon, symbol and index were the main ideas in the works of Charles Peirce. For him, index, symbol and icon were three different kinds of signs. (Branston and Stafford, 2003) I will provide a small definitions of those three, and they will be based on Peirce’s identification of those concepts. For him, a sign is a pattern that has a particular meaning. The difference in the signs is in how the meaning happens to be attached or associated with them. All of those three concepts are a core tool for the Peirce – Semiotic approach.
The idea of an Icon is the most simple one, as it is a sign that physically resembles what it stands for. So, for example the Icon is a picture of a cat, showing a particular cat. Most of the icons that we use today in our everyday lives are internationally known. They are embedded in our understanding of the world. Because most of us have seen a cat in their life, they know that the icon showing it is illustrating a particular cat itself. It is possible that an icon will become a symbol. For example, the icon of the shell resembles the shell that we can find on the beach. But, it will become a symbol when the meaning behind the picture of a shell represents the petrol company of the same name (Royal Dutch Shell). In his book Understanding Comics Scott McCloud refers to different kinds of icons, such as icons of science, language and communication. (McCloud, 1993)
The Index signs have an actual connection and usually are a causality of something. For example, if a person sees smoke, it means that there must be a fire. Index signs convey a logical and direct message to people and their indication is direct and clear. They are used everywhere in the world, as they are a direct connotation to an object so everyone can understand them. Let’s take as an example the road signs. The sign board for “two way street” or “the speed limit is 60 km” is easily understood by everyone. You first need to learn the meaning behind it (while doing the drivers license), but the meaning is universal and clear everywhere.
Symbols are the signs that have an interpretive habit or role. It usually has no logical connotation between the meaning and the object. For example, the red heart is a representation of love. It has nothing to do with the realistic representation of the heart (as it would have in the case of an icon), but it has a fixed meaning behind it. The other symbols for love might be also a rose or the red color. The symbol has a particular background within the culture, and relates more to a particular society than to the whole. It might relate to religious beliefs or historical events. Usually, the same concepts might be expressed differently in different cultures. In his book Mccloud points out that symbols are one category of icons. As he writes „These are the images we use to represent concepts, ideas and philosophies.” (McCloud, 1993, p. 27)
Semiotics and research (Berger, Branston & Stafford)
To conclude this whole post about Semiotics, I’ll try to explain how, according ot Berger as well as Branston & Stafford, this approach may be used as a research method.As wrtitten by Branston & Stafford: „Semiotics, (…) does not assume that the media work as simple channels of communication, as ‘windows on the world’. Instead they are seen as actually structuring the very realities which they seem to ‘describe’or ‘stand in for’.” (Branston & Stafford, 2003, p. 12) Because of that, the Semiotic analysis is very useful tool to decode the meanings behind certain things. Might be a photo, logos of brands or advertisements of particular goods, all of them have certain meanings behind them. Semiotics questions the construction of the meaning by different languages and cultures. (Branston & Stafford, 2003) Berger focuses on one important part of nowadays Semiotics: the ideas of Denotation and Connotation. As he writes: „Denotation involves a literal and detailed description of the meaning of a word or the measurements of objects. Connotation, on the other hand, involves the cultural meanings and myths connected to words and to things.” (Berger, 2010, p. 16) These two are important, as they allow an analysis on several levels. Something that once been a connotation might become a denotation, so the analysis can be made all over again, from a different point of view. The Semiotic approach can be also used as a way to decode a certain language by itself, not just signs. This approach investigates the signs in various forms: words, letters, pictures, gestures, phenomena, objects and actions. It explores their content and use as well as the formation of the meaning behind which might have a simple as well as complex structure. The Semiotic approach is an useful tool if you aim at analyzing, understanding and interpreting the signs and their meaning, as well as their interaction with each other.
I hope this post was a helpful explanation of this approach. Don’t hesitate to express your ideas or correct me in the comment section below. Hope to see you here with my next post, bye!
Reference list:
Berger, A. A. (2010).
The objects of affection: semiotics and consumer culture. London: Palgrave Macmillan. (chapter 1: “The Science of Signs, pp. 3-31)
Branston, G., & Stafford, R.
(2003). The media student’s book. London/New York: Psychology Press. (chapter: “Semiotic Approaches”, pp. 11-17)
McCloud, S.
(1993). Understanding Comics. The Invisible Art. New York: Harper Collins. (pp. 24-59, chapter 2) (SB PZ 120/ SW PZ 120)